CHAPTER 13 : OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENT

(http://www.occupationalsafetystrategies.com.)

What is occupational health and environment? Occupational health and environment is:

(a) An area concerned with the safety, health and welfare of people engaged in work or employment. 
(b) It deals with all aspects of health and safety in the workplace and has a strong focus on primary prevention of hazards.
(c) It is also a multidisciplinary field of healthcare concerned with enabling an individual to undertake their occupation, in the way that causes least harm to their health.


Occupational Health

• Promote health & safety awareness among the employees and responsibility to control and protect themselves from occupational hazards at workplace.
• Instill physical & mental strength to employees in connection with the workload to avoid stress at work.
• Continuous monitoring among health personnel who are exposed to hazards at workplace.

Under Section 15 of OSHA, employers are responsible for ensuring the safety, health and
welfare of all employees.

Risk of Occupational Health

The risk of workers suffering from occupational diseases is dependent on the following factors;

1. The type of hazard
2. Duration of exposure
3. The number of hazards exposed
4. Socio-demographic factors (e.g. age, gender, ethnicity and health history)
5. The use of PPE (Personal Protective Equipment)


The scope & activities of Occupational Health
1. Establish Safety & Health Committee in health facilities
2. Audit Safety and Health at workplace
3. Conducting risk assessment in all KMM facilities
4. Notify poisoning cases (pesticide/chemicals), occupational injuries (fall, cut, needle-stick Injury) or occupational disease (TB, hearing loss, skin disease, lung disease) among health personnel and investigate the cases.
5. Audiometry, stress, Hepatitis B Screening
6. Disease Prevention & Control programme

7. Provide training (chemical handling, safety etc.)

(http://www.aware365.com.au/sites/aware365/files/pictures/pic-blog-consulting.jpg)

Scope & Activities EH

Monitoring & inspection of several organizations such as;
1. PLKN (national service training program)
2. Prison
3. Detention camps
4. Sanitary Inspection at school, market, recreational park, estates residential, farm
5. Management of environmental pollution
6. Investigation of open burning and nuisance complaints

7. Inspection of solid waste disposal site
8. Inspection of Building Plan/Renovation/Sewerage Plan
9. Building Inspection for Certificate of Fitness for Occupancy (CFO)
10.Cemetery inspection
11.Certificate of import/export of body parts or corpse, body ashes
12.Inspection of TASKA, TADIKA/TABIKA, University and colleges

Regulations Involved
1. Occupational Safety & Health Act 1994 (Act 514)
2. Factories and Machinery Act 1967 (Act 139)
3. Education Act 1996
4. Care Centres Act 993 (Act 506)
5. Private Higher Educational Institutions Act 1996


Tools
Commonly practices, in order to assess occupational health and environmental health scope/study;
• Occupational health & safety – HIRARC, CHRA (DOSH)
• Environmental & Health – EIA, HIA, EHIA (DOE)

HIRARC
• HIRARC is an integration tool to identify, assess/measure and to control hazard and risk of
any workplace and its activities. 

CHRA
• The Chemical Health Risk Assessment (CHRA) is an assessment that has to be conducted by the employer arising from the use, handling, storage or transportation of chemicals hazardous to health in their workplace.

EIA
• Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a the environment of a proposed project and to
study to identify, predict, evaluate and communicate information about the impact on
detail out the mitigating measures prior to project approval and implementation.

HIA or EHIA
• WHO defines HIA as “a combination of procedures methods and tools by which a
policy, program or project may be judged as to its potential effects on the health of a
population, and the distribution of those effects within the population,”
• HIA is the process of estimating the potential impact of a chemical, biological, physical or
social agent on a specified human population system under a specific set of conditions and

for a certain timeframe.

References
http://www.occupationalsafetystrategies.com
wikipedia
noted that had been given from my lecterur Sir Mohd Jamalil Azam Bin Mustafa

CHAPTER 12 : AIR QUALITY AND POLLUTION

Introduction

(http://www5.picturepush.com/photo/a/4211708/640/4211708.gif)

• Air is odorless & colourless.
• Mostly, it composed of
• Nitrogen (approx. 78%)
• Oxygen (approx. 21%)

(http://www.todayonline.com/sites/default/files/styles/photo_gallery_image_lightbox/public/15429484_0.JPG?itok=bkKcYyjk)

Definition of haze
- Haze is traditionally an atmospheric phenomenon where dust, smoke and other dry particles obscure the clarity of the sky.
- It is caused when sunlight encounters tiny pollution particles in the air. 
- Some light is absorbed by particles while other light is scattered away before it reaches an observer.
- The more the pollutants,the more the absorption and scattering of light, which reduces the clarity and colour of what we see.

Health Effect of Haze:
- It can affect the heart and lungs, especially in people who already have chronic heart or lung disease e.g. asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), or heart failure.

- When inhaled, they can enter the bloodstream and get absorbed by underlying tissue, potentially interacting with other compounds and substances in the body. 

There are 2 term effects of exposure to haze:

(a) Short-term adverse effects of exposure to haze
These symptoms are usually mild and will subside if exposure to haze is limited by staying indoors. It effects are:

- Eye irritation, watering eyes, and/or conjunctivitis (a type of eye inflammation)
- Running nose, stuffy nose, sneezing, and/or post-nasal drip.
- Throat irritation, dry throat, sore throat and/or coughing, phlegm.
- Headache, dizziness, fatigue and/or stress.

(b) Long-term effects of exposure to haze
- A large number of particles in a haze are below 2.5 micrometers in diameter. Therefore these ultra small particles stay in the air longer and are easily carried over long distances, increasing their chances of being inhaled by animals and humans.

- The long-term risks associated with exposure to fine particles:
(i)Faster rate of thickening of the arteries compared to others, promoting the development of vascular diseases.
(ii) Increases the risk of death by cardiovascular disease and reduces life expectancy by several months to a few years.
(iii)May contribute to the development of diabetes.
(iv)Spontaneous abortion, under-weight infants, birth defects and infant death.

How to reduce those terms?

(a) General Measures at the Workplace- Minimize outdoor activities.
- Identify outdoor work that may be reduced. 
- Close all windows, doors and any openings that may allow haze to enter the workplace.
- Turn on the air conditioner if available. 
- Ensure maintenance of the air conditioner with regular cleaning and servicing.
- Use an air purifier to keep the particulate levels low.
- Provide health education regarding haze to the employees
- Provide respirators for employees who have to work outdoors
- Ensure there is sufficient supply of respirators for employees who have to work outdoors.

(b) General Measures for the Workers
- Inform the management if you are suffering from any heart or respiratory diseases
- Take your medication regularly if suffering from an existing disease, especially heart disease and respiratory diseases.
- Drink more water and increase the intake of fresh fruits and vegetables.
- Cut down on alcohol and coffee.
- Avoid smoking.
- Wear a respirator when you go outside.

(https://i.ytimg.com/vi/sAKyhfxxr7s/maxresdefault.jpg)

There are 2 source air pollution:
(a) Natural resources 

(http://image.slidesharecdn.com/editedimpactsofairpollutiononhumanbeingsbymick-copy-151106102057-lva1-app6892/95/impacts-of-air-pollution-on-human-beings-3-638.jpg?cb=1446805665)

(b)

Wednesday, July 20, 2016

Chapter 12- Air Quality and Pollution

Chapter 12- Air Quality and Pollution

Definition of haze
- Haze is traditionally an atmospheric phenomenon where dust, smoke and other dry particles obscure the clarity of the sky.
- It is caused when sunlight encounters tiny pollution particles in the air. 
- Some light is absorbed by particles while other light is scattered away before it reaches an observer.
- The more the pollutants,the more the absorption and scattering of light, which reduces the clarity and colour of what we see.


                                  (source: http://www.vadscorner.com/internet67.html)

Health Effect of Haze:
- It can affect the heart and lungs, especially in people who already have chronic heart or lung disease e.g. asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), or heart failure.

- When inhaled, they can enter the bloodstream and get absorbed by underlying tissue, potentially interacting with other compounds and substances in the body. 

There are 2 term effects of exposure to haze:

(a) Short-term adverse effects of exposure to haze
These symptoms are usually mild and will subside if exposure to haze is limited by staying indoors. It effects are:

- Eye irritation, watering eyes, and/or conjunctivitis (a type of eye inflammation)
- Running nose, stuffy nose, sneezing, and/or post-nasal drip.
- Throat irritation, dry throat, sore throat and/or coughing, phlegm.
- Headache, dizziness, fatigue and/or stress.

(b) Long-term effects of exposure to haze
- A large number of particles in a haze are below 2.5 micrometers in diameter. Therefore these ultra small particles stay in the air longer and are easily carried over long distances, increasing their chances of being inhaled by animals and humans.

- The long-term risks associated with exposure to fine particles:
(i)Faster rate of thickening of the arteries compared to others, promoting the development of vascular diseases.
(ii) Increases the risk of death by cardiovascular disease and reduces life expectancy by several months to a few years.
(iii)May contribute to the development of diabetes.

(iv)Spontaneous abortion, under-weight infants, birth defects and infant death.

How to reduce those terms?

(a) General Measures at the Workplace
- Minimize outdoor activities.
- Identify outdoor work that may be reduced. 
- Close all windows, doors and any openings that may allow haze to enter the workplace.
- Turn on the air conditioner if available. 
- Ensure maintenance of the air conditioner with regular cleaning and servicing.
- Use an air purifier to keep the particulate levels low.
- Provide health education regarding haze to the employees
- Provide respirators for employees who have to work outdoors
- Ensure there is sufficient supply of respirators for employees who have to work outdoors.

(b) General Measures for the Workers
- Inform the management if you are suffering from any heart or respiratory diseases
- Take your medication regularly if suffering from an existing disease, especially heart disease and respiratory diseases.
- Drink more water and increase the intake of fresh fruits and vegetables.
- Cut down on alcohol and coffee.
- Avoid smoking.
- Wear a respirator when you go outside.

Source of air pollution

          (source: http://butane.chem.uiuc.edu/pshapley/environmental/l17/index.html)

There are 2 source air pollution:
(a) Natural resources 

(source: http://www.slideshare.net/MAYANKGUPTA264/impacts-of-air-pollution-on-human-beings)

(b) Anthropogenic sources

(http://science-edu.larc.nasa.gov/ozonegarden/images/page-graphics/pic1_sourceNOx.jpg)

(http://images.slideplayer.com/15/4673099/slides/slide_40.jpg)

(http://www.bbc.com/specialfeatures/horizonsbusiness/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/prolarge6.jpg)

Legislation

•Environmental Quality Act 1974

• Control of Industrial Emissions

• Environment Quality (Clean Air): Regulation 1978

• Environment Quality (Compounding of offences): Rules 1978

• Control of Motor Vehicle Emissions

• Environment Quality (Control of lead concentration in Malaysia)

Regulations 1985

• Environmental Quality (Motor vehicle Noise): Regulation 1987

• Environmental Quality (Control of emission for diesel engine)

Regulations 1996

• Environmental Quality (Control of emission for petrol engine):

Regulation 1996

References

-https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sAKyhfxxr7s

-http://images.slideplayer.com/15/4673099/slides/slide_40.jpg

-http://www.bbc.com/specialfeatures/horizonsbusiness/wp-                    content/uploads/2013/05/prolarge6.jpg

-noted that had been given from my lecterur Sir Mohd Jamalil Azam         Bin Mustafa

CHAPTER 11 : WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT

DEFINITION OF WASTEWATER AND SEWAGE


Wastewater

• Waste Water is any water that has been adversely affected in quality by anthropogenic influence.
• It comprises liquid waste discharged by domestic
residences, commercial properties, industry, and or agriculture and can encompass a wide range of potential contaminants and concentrations.


Sewage

• “sewage” means any liquid waste or wastewater discharge containing human, animal, domestic, or
putrescible matter in suspension or solution, and includes liquids containing chemicals in solution either in the raw, treated or partially treated form;

Sewage Content
• Organic matter
• Nutrients (Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium)
• Inorganic matter (dissolved minerals)
• Toxic chemicals (heavy metal and pesticides)
• Pathogens

Individual Septic Tank
• Premises with a proper individual septic tank (Malaysian Standards - MS 1228 ) has 3 to 4 rectangular metal covers and is usually located outside the premises.
• It only provides partial sewage treatment that flows into it & needs to be desludged approximately once in two years.

Individual Septic Tank

- It only provides partial sewage treatment that flows into it and needs to be desludged approximately once in two years.

- Premises with a proper individual septic tank (Malaysian Standards -MS 1228 ) has 3 to 4 rectangular metal covers and is usually located outside the premises.

(http://kerschners.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/locate-septic.jpg)

Sludge

• Residual, semi-solid material left from sewage treatment processes or settled suspension from
conventional drinking water treatment.
• Untreated sludge is a significant environmental & public health hazard.
• However, treated stabilized sludge is inert, stable and safe to use.


Effluent discharge

• Must be accomplished without transmitting diseases, endangering aquatic organisms, impairing the soil, or causing unsightly or foul-smelling conditions.
• Effluent standards define what is allowed within the wastewaters discharged into the aquatic environment.
• 2 most important parameters are Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Suspended Solids (SS).
• BOD - amount of oxygen that sewage consumes over a given time. High BOD means, sewage rapidly consume all the naturally-dissolved oxygen instreams, rivers and lakes, thus killing off all aquatic life.
• SS - undissolved material in sewage. High SS lead sto sludge deposits in the waterways, thus causing significant environmental deterioration.

Health Effects
• Contaminate via inhalation, ingestion, or direct contact to human by chemical, microbiological and biological properties of the sewage or sludge.
• The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) says sewage workers are not at more risk of Hepatitis A infection than other workers.

References
-https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YW6GBciRHLg
-http://kerschners.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/locate-septic.jpg
-noted that had been given from my lecterur Sir Mohd Jamalil Azam Bin Mustafa

CHAPTER 9 : FOOD HYGIENE AND SANITATION

(http://hlassociates-india.in/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/food-safety-act-banner.jpg)

 
FOOD HYGIENE
Food hygiene are the conditions and measures necessary to ensure the safety of food from production to consumption. Food can become contaminated at any point during slaughtering or harvesting, processing, storage, distribution, transportation and preparation. Lack of adequate food hygiene can lead to foodborne diseases and death of the consumer.

Definition of terms

• Food: Any substance whether solid, semi-solid or liquid
• Sanitation: Being clean and conducive to health.
• Cleanliness: Absence of visible dirt and not necessarily
• Food Infection: Microbial infection resulting from ingestion
• Food Intoxication: type of illness caused by toxins. Under that is consume by human. sanitized. of contaminated foods.
• Food Spoilage: The original nutritional value, texture, flavor favorable condition certain bacteria produce chemical compounds called toxins of the food are damaged and become harmful to people and unsuitable to eat.
• Food borne Illness: A disease transmitted to people by food. 



 CLEAN AND SANITIZING

Clean means that soil and food are visibly removed from surfaces
sanitized it means that those surfaces have a reduction of pathogens. There still may be        
                 microorganisms present, but they are at safe levels.
~Something that looks clean does not mean it is sanitary. Billions of microorganisms may be present even though they are not visible to the naked eye. Both cleaning and sanitizing are essential in preventing foodborne illness.

(http://image.slidesharecdn.com/chapter1-120619163656-phpapp02/95/food-sanitation-safety-hygiene-chapter-1-7-728.jpg?cb=1340123904)

 Types of Contaminants

1. Biological Contaminant
May cause a food borne illness (bacteria,viruses, fungi, parasites, biological toxins)

(http://image.slidesharecdn.com)

Examples:   • Sea food toxins
                    • Mushroom toxins
                    • Clostridium Botulinum
                    • Salmonella bacteria
Prevention
• Maintain good personal hygiene      
• Observe proper hand washing
• Clean and sanitize equipment
• Maintain clean and sanitize facilities
• Purchase foods only on reputable supplier
• Do not use wild mushrooms
• Control pests

** Cooking does not destroy toxins**
2. Physical Contaminant
 Any foreign object that accidentally find its way into food
• Hair
• Staple wire
• Dust
• Metal shavings
• Nails
• Earrings
• Hair clips
• Plastics
• Metal
• Glass fragments
• Insects
• stones

Prevention
• Wear hair cap (man) & veil or cover (woman)
• Avoid wearing jewelry when preparing, cooking and holding foods (ring, earrings)
• Do not carry pencil or pen
• Do not wear nail polish or artificial nails when working with foods
• Remove staple wire in the receiving area
• Place shields on lights









3. Chemical Contaminant

 A chemical substance that can cause food borne illness. Substances normally found in restaurant
• Toxic metals
• Pesticides
• Cleaning product
• Sanitizers
• Preservatives

 Prevention
• Train employees how to use chemicals
• Store chemicals in original containers to prevent accidental misuse
• Labels are clearly identify chemical contents of chemical containers
• Wash hands thoroughly after working with chemicals
• Monitor pest control operator and make surechemicals do not contaminate foods


Three main causes of food borne illness
1. Cross- Contamination
2. Time-Temperature Abuse
3. Poor Personal Hygiene


 references
- http://www.who.int/foodsafety/areas_work/food-hygiene/en/
-www.co.brown.wi.us/i_brown/d/health/cleaning_and_sanitizing.
 -noted that had been given from my lecterur Sir Mohd Jamalil Azam Bin Mustafa

CHAPTER 8 : TOXICOLOGY

Toxicology 
-(from the Ancient Greek words τοξικός toxikos "poisonous" and λόγος logos) is a branch of biology, chemistry, and medicine (more specifically pharmacology) concerned with the study of the adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms.^[1] It also studies the harmful effects of chemical, biological and physical agents in biological systems that establishes the extent of damage in living organisms. The relationship between dose and its effects on the exposed organism is of high significance in toxicology. Factors that influence chemical toxicity include the dosage (and whether it is acute or chronic); the route of exposure, the species, age, sex and environment.
- Environmental toxicology is defined as the study of the fate and effects of chemicals in the environment.
-Although this definition would encompass toxic chemicals naturally found in the environment (i.e., animal venom, microbial and plant toxins), environmental toxicology is typically associated with the study of environmental chemicals of anthropogenic origin.
-Environmental toxicology can be divided into two subcategories: environmental health toxicology and ecotoxicology. 

(www.toxicologyguide.com)

Types of Toxicants

As mentioned before, there's a wide variety of toxicants in the environment. To better understand them, we can put them into specific categories that are based on the types of problems they cause.  
Carcinogens are probably the best-known toxicant because these are cancer-causing chemicals. Cigarette smoke falls into this category as it contains over 4,000 chemicals, many of which cause cancer.

Mutagens are mutation-causing chemicals. When organisms are exposed to a mutagen, it literally mutates their DNA, leading to cancer and other disorders. X-rays are well known mutagens.
Teratogens are chemicals that cause harm to unborn babies. The name of this toxicant comes from the Greek word teras, which means monster. These chemicals cause birth defects during development in the womb. Thalidomide was used in the 1950s as a sleeping pill and to prevent nausea during pregnancy, but turned out to be a very harmful teratogen. Even a single dose is powerful enough to cause severe birth defects in children.

Allergens are chemicals that stimulate overactivity in the immune system. When you are exposed to allergens, your body goes into overdrive, triggering an immune response to try and get rid of the allergen. This is why pollen and dust cause symptoms that are similar to being sick.

Neurotoxins are chemicals that attack the nervous system. These include heavy metals, like lead and mercury, as well as pesticides and chemical weapons. Neurotoxins can lead to symptoms like slurred speech, loss of muscle control and even death.

Endocrine disrupters are chemicals that disrupt the endocrine system in organisms and most often come from prescription drugs and chemicals in plastics. The endocrine system is also known as the hormone system, and this part of your body is what regulates growth, development, sexual maturity, brain function and even appetite.

-Toxicants that disrupt hormone functioning can lead to some serious problems because they so closely resemble real hormones in your body. Reptiles and amphibians are especially sensitive to endocrine disrupters and exposure often leads to feminization of male animals. This may seem like a lot to remember! But if you look closely, you'll see that the name of the toxicant describes the effect it has on organisms, which helps us understand these toxicants better.

Dangerous chemicals are divided into two broad categories:

 • Toxic - Poisonous-Can be general or very specific. Often harmful even in dilute concentrations.

• Hazardous - Dangerous-Flammable, explosive, irritant, acid, corrosive.

 Exposure and Susceptibility

• Airborne toxins generally cause more ill health than any other exposure (lining of lungs easily absorbs toxins)

• Largest toxin exposure reported in industrial settings.

• Condition of organism and timing of exposure also have strong influences on toxicity.

(http://fivestoneswellness.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/ToxicChem.preview.png)

(http://organicinsights.in/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/pic22.jpg)

(https://people.uwec.edu/piercech/Hg/Pictures/exposure1.jpg)

Excretion and Repair

• Effects of waste products and environmental toxins reduced by eliminating via excretion.

   • Kidneys (Urine)
    • Breathing

• Tissues and organs often have mechanisms for damage repair.
    • Any irritating agent can be potentially carcinogenic.

Type of Effects

• Local effects – damage at the site where a chemical first comes into contact with the body; examples are redness, burning and irritation of the skins.

• Systemic effects – adverse effects associated with generalized distribution of the chemical throughout the body by bloodstream to internal organ.

• Target organ effects – some chemical may confine their effects to specific organ; the most common organs affected by such chemicals are liver, lungs, heart, kidneys, brain and nervous system, and the reproductive system.

References:

-www.toxicologyguide.com
-en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxicology
-https://people.uwec.edu
-(source from my lecturer note about chapter 2)
-organicinsights.in
-fivestoneswellness.com

-noted that had been given from my lecterur Sir Mohd Jamalil Azam Bin Mustafa